Esther M. Zimmer Lederberg: Galera

The music is Morisco music, found on Iberian Garden, Vol. 1 by Altramar. The piece is Muwashshah: Mā li-l-muwallah, 1113-1198.

This music takes place at the beautiful gardens along the Guadalquiver, near Cordoba. This is during the "convivencia" under Alfonso X (El Sabio - The Wise), the time before Granda fell: when Christians, Moslems and Jews lived at peace with each other. Muwashshah are songs in poetic form, with instrumental interludes in the form of Ibn Bājja (Avempace): 1470-1520. This is Morisco art.

Tuscan galley rowers (Ottomans)
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Morisco men were killed by the armies of Tercios sent to attack them. In addition, the women were raped, and both the women and children were sold as slaves. In addition, the general populace of Christians stole the property of the Moriscos and also killed the Morisco men and raped the Morisca women. Some of the Morisco men survived, but were sentenced to serve as galley slaves. In addition to Moriscos being punished for their crime by serving on galleys, Huguenots, and especially peccant (sinful) friars ¹ were also punished for their crime by serving on Galleys. Of course, the Salé Republics, as well as Algiers, Tunis, Tripoli, and Fez used galleys. African Blacks, even Amerindian Iroquois enjoyed galley service ², used in the Caribbean as well. Click to see.

The Ottoman Empire began with the fall of Constantinople in 1454. The Genoese Black Sea Empire was established by the fall of Constantinople in 1204 (4th Crusade), and ended by 1475 (after the Imperium Trebizond had been first defeated). The Ottomans were still using galleys on the Black Sea in 1787-1792 (Russo-Ottoman War, Pavel Ivanovich Dzhons, or John Paul Jones). ³

A galley has a hold, the hold being partitioned into six compartments ⁴:

Gavon: A little cabin near the poop - holds the captain's bed.

Escantiolat: Where captain's provisions are kept.

Campagne: Contains beer, wine, oil, vinegar, fresh water, bacon, salted meat, fish, cheese for the crew.

Paillot: Dried provisions (biscuit, peas, rice, etc.)

Tavern: Wine sold by the comite, for the profit of the comite. Also has a sub compartment, the "powder room" for gun powder, sails, and tents. Only the gunner has a key to the powder room.

Steerage: Cordage and surgeon's chest are stored here. Also a hospital for sick and wounded. No beds. Staff, if any, are fripons (criminals and incompetents).

A galley has fifty benches for rowers (25 on each side). Each bench is is ten feet in length, 6" thick, 4' between each bench. Each bench is covered in sackcloth, reaching down to the banquet (footstool). Each of the six slaves per bench are chained to the bench (if a galley sinks, the chained rowers cannot escape and drown). The oars are fixed to a large rim of timber along the bande (the galley gunnel). Each oar is fifty feet in length, balanced on the rim of timber aforementioned. 13' of oar in the galley, 37' outside the galley reaching to the water. The oars are thick, so the rowers hold onto handles on the oars. While hardwoods such as Oak were prefered, softwoods such as Elm, Pine, Poplar and Fir were used (but were not as resistant to worms as Oak).

Comite at the stern, two sous-comites (middle of the deck, and a the other near the prow). All three comites use a knotted-rope whip. When the captain says to commence rowing, the comite signals with a silver whistle (around the comite's neck). Upon such signal, each rower's oar strikes the water at the same time. All oars must move at the same rate else oars will hit each other, and the motion of the rowers will hinder other oarsmen. When the comite whips the slaves, streams of blood pour onto the benches. It is believed that this labour can only be done by slaves. Oarsmen must sometimes row for as many as twenty hours with no intermission. In such long periods of uninterrupted work, the comite and sous-comites put bread steeped in wine into the mouths of the slaves to prevent fainting, while the hands of the slaves are employed on the oar. ⁵ When rowing the galleys at sea, half-naked and exposed to the sun, they were not infrequently left so desperately short of drinking water that they drank sea water of died on their benches; never allowed to lie down to sleep, many of them had fallen into continual extacies (delerium).

When at battle, when high speeds are required, "Now the captain roars to the comite to redouble his blows: and when any one drops his oar in a faint, which not unfrequently happens, he is whipped while any remains of life appear, and then thrown into the sea without further ceremony." ⁶

Term	Meaning
albero	albero di trinchetto: foremast albero maestro: main mast
antenna	Long yard of lateen sail.
arborare	To put the main mast up to make the ship more visible (when sailing away). See "disarborare".
argousin, argozin, argnesyn	An under (police) officer charged with guarding galley slaves (attending to the slave shackles).
arrembaggio, arrumbada	To board and attack another ship from a platform or rambade at the bow.
"arsenal" (Turkish "tersana", from the Arabic "dar-sina-'a" or "dar accina'ah"	A shipyard where galleys (as well as other kinds of ships) are constructed click to see.
askōma	A leather sleeve around the lowest level of oars, closest to the water with oar(s) protruding from within the hull click to see.
badestan	*Slave market in Algiers and Tripoli. Named the "Souq el Berka" in Tunis.*
bagne, bagnio, bains, banhos, baños, bagni	A prison (often a "hulk"). Often used as a workhouse where forçats worked as artisans. Sometimes hammocks were used for sleep in the bagnio. Major bagnes were at Marseilles, Toulon, Brest, La Rochelle, and Rochefort.
banchi or cadena	Banks or benches of rowers.
bancs respectés	Men assigned to the bancs of the comite (servants).
baraques	Dockside shanties (jerry-built) shacks with tiny stalls rented near the wharf, where oarsmen plied their trades.
bargello	Long yard of lateen sail.
basha, bachi, başa guardian	A hierarchy existed in the bagno. The slaves in the bagno must pass before the guardian başa before nightfall, as their names are called, to ensure they were accounted for Click to see.
bastinado	Whipping of a galeotto. Often ox-bones were the preferred cudgel. Sometimes a bull's stretched penis was used. ⁷ pp. 16, 75
beggar-bolts	A contemptuous term for the missiles which were thrown by the galley-slaves at an approaching enemy.
bonnevoglie, bonne boyas	Good rowers. Volunteer oarsmen, paid, not subject to the chain. Usually recruited by crimps Shanghighed, usually persuaided by drinks. A galley rower, not a slave or prisoner, a volunteer. Required to pay to dress like other crew members. Each galley slave gets two shirts, two pair of cloth pants, a red shirt, a red hat, a coat of rough cloth, a pair of socks and may sell articles made during free time, in ports, such as handbags, leather belts, wool socks. Galley slaves may play musical instruments at local inns for pocket money. Bonnevoglie were allowed to wear a moustache as a distinctive sign of status.
bertoni, brentoni	A deep round-hulled ship of 3 masts, wide, with 20 to 30 guns, from northern Europe. Able to sail in winter storms (galleys could only be used in calm weather).
bourrasque	The cleaning of a galley every Saturday.
Brigantino	A small one-masted ship with no oars.
bussola	The magnetic compass, introduced to the West from China, c. 1190AD.
caique	A boat on board a galley.
calamite	Calamite refers to a magnet of loadstone (iron deposite) that can disrupt the functioning of a compass.
cannone di corsìa	Big brass cannon on the gang way from bow to stern. Four to six light cannons and smaller guns (cannoni petrieri Click to see, colubrine, culverines Click to see). On ship sides: falconetti, moschetti. Sometimes cannon balls were poisoned.
calafato	*The "hull" of galley.*
cannone petrieri	Breech-loading swivel gun (French: Perrier à boîte). Click to see.
caramussále, Karamusal, quaramusal, Karamürsel	Turkish or Ottoman sailboat with a very high poop, to accomodate turbans. Such vessels were unstable, often capsizing. Name derived from "Kara Musa", "Quaramusal", a Turkish merchantman (Baretti)
carvel, clinker	Two basic methods used to construct ships were either the carvel or the clinker method. Carvel construction provided for stronger ship sides thus were favored. Click to see.
cerusico	Barber aboard a galley.
A "chain"	A chain gang of galley slaves. Usage: A "small chain" (a small number of slaves, such as 30 slaves). A "great chain" composed of many small chains (maybe a few thousand galley slaves that walk perhaps from Lyon to Marseilles). Typically two slaves are chained to each other. Perhaps 20 couples of these chained persons are put in a line, a long chain linking each couple to create a small chain. Note, people typically carried 150 pounds of chains. Obviously, sick and elderly slaves died and created a path of dead people as they walked (beaten if they could no longer walk). The King's justice. Note: the "crime" committed by these enslaved people might be that they were Huguenots, or that they were followers of Islam. ⁸
chamade	A cry made by galley slaves to intimidate and terrify the enemy, while also shaking their chains. Drums and trumpets also used. Note: while rowing, a drum was sounded to maintain rowing meter.
chaplains	Galley chaplains are usually secular priests of the society of St. Lazarus.
ciurma	Galley rowing crew.
comito, comite, supracomito	Second-in-command on galley (in charge of rowing and navigation). Overseer or whip-master. The comite eats and sleeps on a bench of the galley. When the comite eats or is seated, the convicts of this bench stand with heads uncovered. The convicts of the benches of the comite and sous comites or sottocomites are never lashed. These benches are called "the researved seats". On larger galles, there can up to three comites, and sous comites at the stern (comite), midship (sotocomite) and prow (sottocomite) each focused on their allotted benches. By the 18th century, priviledged sinecures were awarded to knights and other nobility. A supracomito was such a title. Comitos ran taverns called cantines on the galleys. Comitos employed a trusted forçat as a tavern keeper tavernier. Wine was safer than water (due to the alcohol).
commerce de galère	Methods to earn small change or to spend small change by gallérien. For example, a rower can pay for to buy drinks at the Galley tavern.
convict, forçat	A convict on a galley must wear red.
corrales	Widows and women without husbands lived in courtyards surrounded by fountains to share water, a common bench, and a childrens plat area. The inbalance was caused by men having neen murdered, forced to serve galley service or had escaped to the mountains.
coursier	The "coursier" is a gangway passing lengthwise down the middle of the galley, about 3' wide.
délat, dilaleen	Slave auctioneers. Adepts at judging age and health of slaves especially noting beard, face, hair, teeth, delicacy of hands, palm reading, earlobes (to determine if pierced, a sign of wealth), physical strength. Such slaves might be referred to as purchased "wholesale" (low price). Such slaves are classified then resold ("retail") at a higher price. The difference between prices is called the "beliç" (the public fisc or tax). Click to see.
disarborare	Dismasting (taking down a mast to make a ship less visible).
droit d'échelle	Fee paid by oarsmen to be unchained, or a gangway ladder fee.
Édit de Nantes (1598)	Huguenots (French Calvinists) granted rights in France.
Échevin	A conflict arose concerning valuable dock properties and services (commerce de galère). The church owned most of this valuable galley prison dockside property, but merchants also wanted this valuable prison property. As the French government gained so much financially from galley prisons, officials called "échevins mediated in such conflicts between the church and the merchants. One can only imagine the volume of bribery that took place!⁸
Elephant's flood	A major Indian Ocean storm.
Escurribanda	A punishment for galeotto: to run the gauntlet (on the corsio, the rowers beat a naked rower with a tarred knotted rope). A 150 rowers beating a man might well do serious injury.
Espalier	First oarman: sets the pace.

Evolution of Galleys, and Carracks	Click to see.
Falconetti or Colubrines	Falconetti or Colubrines were small guns found on galleys Click to see.
fanali, lanterna	A lantern at the stern of a galley that identifies the galley as a rank ship that carries an admiral or an important personage. Also called a "galea di finale".
faticatori	Impoverished labourers.
forcone, fougon	Part of the kitchen on a galley. The forcone is a clay firebox.
formiche	*Small islands seen from afar look like "ants" (literally: "formiche").*
forçats, forzatti	Galley prisoners or convicts. Forzati were allowed to wear a moustache as a distinctive sign of status.
fusta	A small, fast, single-masted galley.
gagliardetti	Pennants.
G A L	The French branded those condemned to the galleys for life with the letters G A L. French troops that attempted to desert had their nose and ears cut off, were branded with a fleur-de-lis on each cheek, and were then condemned to the galleys for life. Gypsies and vagabonds (homeless) were often condemned to the galleys for life.
galeazza, galleass	A merchant ship, bigger than a gally, with 3 masts, 70 cannons including a big cannone di corsìa, and a dozen smaller cannons (mezzicannoni, mezze colubrine, moiane, sagri and cannoni petrieri on the banks (rowing benches). Effectively, a galeazza is a battle ship with cannons on port and starboard sides. Thus galleasses gave protection against being raked as well as supporting more cannons, and lastly more protection. Click to see.
galère de dépôt	An old galley or hulk used as a prison in port (especially for old or invalid rowers, amputees, men with damaged hands, feet, or limbs, those with loss of sight or hearing, non contageous diseases, or the insane). Self-mutilation was punished with death. It was felt that reintegrating those condemned for life on the galleys were legally dead, thus these forçats were sent to the French Caribbean islands of St. Kitts, St. Martin, and St. Croix, but to Cayenne or Canada if possible. "Bagne" were prisons on shore, especially at Marseilles, Toulon, Brest, La Rochelle and Rochefort (later, the infamous one at Cayenne). Bagne were prisons created for the government to exploit the free labor of prisoners. The prisoners may not actually ever have engaged in criminal activity (examples: Huguenotes, Gypsies, Jews, etc.) Prisoners sometimes categorized by clothing worn: blue uniform, round haircut; red uniforms, shaven heads; etc.
galee grosse	A galley with 3 masts.
galeotto	A forzato, galley slave. Sometimes branded with a cross on the soul of their feet.
galley, "kadirga" (Turkish), perhaps origin of the Russian word Katorga (Каторга).	As light as possible (for speed). A six meter bronze spur or beak or ram at the prow above waterline or submerged. A central, narrow gangway, higher than the deck, from prow to stern, named the "coursier". A walkway, cannon mount, etc. "Rebate": two wooden platforms at the left and right of the prow for soldiers. Also used by soldiers for "arrembaggio" (hand to hand fighting, using guns, to board another ship). Cannons (esp. "cannone di corsìa") on the gangway. Carvel construction preferred over clinker construction.
gambetto	An iron foot shackle to hobble any slave that attempts to escape (Oregon boot). Other slave punishments included being crushed alive, impaled, burned alive, crucified, beaten with a cudgel, punched in the face, etc. Click to see, and Click to see.
gardia	Gardia are 4-hour long galley watches: prima gardia 12PM - 4PM secunda gardia 4PM - 8PM terza gardia 8PM - 12AM quarta gardia 12AM - 4AM quinta gardia 4AM - 8AM sesta gardia 8AM - 12PM
*geliffo, gelif, gileffo, corruption of Arabic "khalifa"*	A tariff or tax located on galleys or banios. For example, a "geliffo" charged to exit a galley at a port (to go to a banio). Another example, a "geliffo" charged to go to a tavern (on a galley or at a banio). Last example, a "geliffo" charged to get easier work or avoid work, etc.
gens sans aveu	*People (vassals) without an overlord ("vagrants").*
graving and brooming	When a ship is put on dry ground to be spalmared, or cleaned.
in giolito	A galley with sails down, oars at rest (calm weather).
Giovanetti, vice à la mode dans Alger	A Catholic youth that might abjure the Catholic faith and become an Islamic catemite, even be circumcized (by force), some becoming "perpetual concubines". Homosexuality and male prostitutes also flourished (not only in Islamic areas but in Europe as well).
House slaves	House slaves were often dressed in livery in wealthy households. Public slaves were reserved for heavy work on galleys, in quarries, etc.
hygiene	Galley oarsmen were chained to their benches. Obviously there was fear of insurection. Allowing galley oarsmen freedom to carry out bodily functions is not likely to have been a major priority, even between bastinados. During warfare, it is far less likely that concern for oar slaves was a consideration. Now consider the facts: rowers had to start and stop rowing in coordination. Anyone that upset the rowers from rowing in a concerted rhythm were immediately given the bastinado. To perform bodily functions, several men rowing at a bench must stop while a rower is unchained, gets up from the bench, does his thing, then returns to be chained again. Other surrounding rowers must stop rowing. The entire rhythm or pace of rowing ceases! Hygiene is a very expensive luxury. When a galley was idle (rowing pace would not be interrupted), rowers needing to relieve themselves could make their way to the "borda" (an opening at the hull side) dragging their chains over sleeping rowers to relieve themselves. "... many slaves were apparently too exhausted or dispirited to do (use the borda) and often ended up simply fouling themselves where they sat." ("Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast, and Italy, 1500-1800", by Robert Davis, p. 76 Imagine: throwing merchandise being transported overboard, to carry toilet paper? Didn't exist anyway! Plumbing aboard a galley? Forget washing hands. "Hygiene" on a galley suggests a Disneyland or Hollywood influence! Diseases on galleys must have been common. This explains how the Black Plague was carried aboard Genoese galleys from Keffe to Italy in 1347. It was said that the odour of a galley could be perceived a mile or more to the leeward. Aristophanes' in "The Frogs" joked that galley oarsmen excreted at their benches: that was galley hygiene! Oarsmen slept at night, they slept on the deck or at their bancs. Only while at sleep could an oarsman go to the side of the galley (the head) and must ask permission: "à la bande", response "va" (permission granted).

Isol	Island, etymology: isolated.
Jewish merchants	Jewish merchants were viewed as necessary intermediaries for financial transactions between European powers and Barbary Coast (North African) markets.
Kadirga	A galley (Turkish).
Knights of Malta	The Knights of Malta are a very good example of the Spanish ideology of "chivalry". The knights were known for their piracy of Christian merchant ships, and eight knights of St. Stephan raped six nuns in the convent of San Jacopo in Florence in 1568. See: "The Journal of Aurelio Scetti: A Florentine Galley Slave at Lepanto (1565-1577)", Edited by Luigi Monga, pp. 21, 156 Knights in the Order of Saint John at Malta served on galleys of the Order, known as "caravans". ¹⁰
lenger	Galley iron anchor (typically 1,200 pounds).
levend, leventino	A sailor, başibozuk, vagabond.
libecci	A southwesterly wind.
lingua franca	Slaves or captives usually are not adept speakers of their master's language, thus masters and their slaves usually speak a simplified, mutually comprehensible "pidgin" language. Thus galley slaves and those in the bagnios used pidgin-Arabic, pidgin-Turkish, pidgin-Greek, or pidgin-Romance ("lingua franca"). A few examples: "dog": "perro cane", "cani perru" "to eat": "mangiar" "eaten up" (used up): "todo mangiado" fantàzìia (Arabic): "ostentation", "for show" (example: "pigilar fantasia" meaning resistant, hardheaded, stubborn: ready for his bastinado) "gently": "forti" "old or worn-out slaves": "aguaitas", "agaitas"
litérature de colportage, litérature de cordel (books bound with strings)	Literature carried by "colporteurs" or "colporters" included lurid descriptions of homosexual practices in Barbary. The overcrowded conditions of the baños and mattamoros lent themselves to homosexuality.
loom	The part of an oar between the thole and the oar handle (see thole).
maestranze	Three craftsmen in charge of the hull.
maona	A Levantine warship.
marangoni	A (galley) carpenter.
marinier (matelot) de rame	French conscripts (sailors) ordered to serve as relief oarsmen.
masseries, giardini	Unskilled slaves worked these small plots of land at farms, orchards, or vinyards as peasants: herding, working the soil and cultivating and harvesting.
mastro d'ascia	In charge of masts and yards.
matelots de rambarde	French conscripts (sailors) ordered to serve on the rambarde. Heavy oak structure at the bow of a galley where armed soldiers were located to prevent boarding, and also where the heaviest cannon was located. The rambarde could be armored with a quarter inch thick iron, thus the rembarde could weigh up to a ton, thus could menace the safety of a galley in heavy weather. ¹¹
mattamoro, masamoro	A chamber constructed especially for slaves: a pit about 20 to 25 steps down into the ground (sometimes descent using rope ladders), roofed over, with a single barred opening in the ceiling, effectively no illumination. Extrememly crowded, no ventilation, extremey filthy. One mattamoro was located in Porto Farina, near Tunis. Another mattamoro was located in Salé, Morocco.
Northern Mediterranean	North Sea combined with the Baltic.
numeration requirements	For security, Turkish slaves could number no more than 15% to 30% of all oarsmen.
oar position	Oar stroke starts at forward position, finishes in backward position click to see.
oarsman	Oarsmen are classified as of first class, second class, etc. until sixth class. Oarsmen are typically naked to the waist.
opera viva, opera morta	Opera viva or hull under water (also named "alow" ) Opera morta or all parts of a ship above water (also named "aloft")
palamento	Good quality galley oars, 14 meters long, weighing c. 150 kilograms, rowers held onto the oars using iron braces.
passacavallo	A merchant ship with oars and sails, and large gates at the stern to allow horses or infantry abord.
passe-vogue	The most rapid cadence or pace of rowing.
pavesate	A wall of shields like an ancient Greek phalanx as a defense against arrows.
pecado nefando	Horrible sin (sodomy). Only mature (i.e., "bearded") individuals were allowed aboard.", "...even priests and monks of any rank who were caught performing acts of sodomy...to be deprived of their religious privileges and sent to the criminal tribunal to be put to death ...", "The Journal of Aurelio Scetti: A Florentine Galley Slave at Lepanto (1565-1577)", Edited by Luigi Monga, pp. 18, 19
pennoni	Tip of mast.
pertuisanier	*Guard of oarsmen armed with a "pertuisane" (halberd).*
prouyers	Up to six youngsters per galley, seven to thirteen years of age as apprentices to become galley noncommissioned officers (during the Colbert period: 1661-1683).
rais	Captain of a galley.
raking	A battle technique used most effectively with square-sailed ships, but which can be used even with galleys, such as at Lepanto Click to see.
raya	Literally: "cattle", derrogatory name for "Christians".
remolaro	Man in charge of the oars.
rowing method	Oars rowing water click to see.
R.P.R. (Religion Prétendue Reformée)	R.P.R. designated Huguenots or Calvinists.
schiavi	Slaves. Purchased Turkish slaves wore a lock of hair at the back of their shaven head.
scribe, scriviano	Each galley had a scribe as well as a barber-surgeon and scrivanelli or assistants on board.
scriviano di razione	The person in charge of itemized merchant goods.
serenissima	Title used for high admirals, ambassadors, etc. of Venice (La Serenissima).
spalmare	To burn off and scrape (brusca) galley hulls to remove barnacles and sea moss, then to spread new oil on the hull. This could increase speed of a galley by as much as 10%.
standardi	Standards.
Tagarine	A Moorish galley rower.
tartane	A tartane is a small boat commonly found on the Mediterranean. Click to see
taular	A scaffold in a tiny galley room used as a "hospital", inhabited by the sick as well as vermin.
tavern, cantine, tavernier	A tavern or cantine (water was unsafe, wine was safer) for forçats and a way for comites to exploit the oarsmen. Wine prices were inflated, liquid measures were inaccurate. Note: alcoholic beverages violate Islamic religious views (nevertheless, Turks, North Africans, etc. were commonly found in Galley and bagnio taverns). Furthermore, stolen goods were commonly sold or resold in in such taverns (just as slaves viewed themselves as stolen property, stolen by their masters). Priests and missionaries were often located near galley or bagnio taverns, and were disturbed by Catholics that might abjure Catholicism and become Muslim catemites.
tende	Each galley had three awnings called tende. Fair tende was used to settle down at night and protected the rowers from wind. Abbattere tenda was not for night.
thole	Oars are effectively levers that move against a thole or thole pin, pressure being applied against (pushing or pulling) water. The "thole pin" acting as the fulcrum. At times the thole pin can be located further away on a galley "outrigger" click to see.
trireme	"Reme" means oar. Galleys could have several banks of oars, each bank having port and starboard oars. Thus: Penteconter 1 bank of oars, also moneres or monocrata. Bireme 2 banks of oars click to see. Trireme 3 banks of oars Quadrireme 4 banks of oars Quinquireme 5 banks of oars
Tuscan galley	Refers to Vatican galleys (the Vatican hired Tuscan galleys; Papal galleys).
voga sensile voga a scaloccio	Rowing style: 2 or 3 oars per bench, each oar maned by a single oarsman. 1 large oar handled by 3 or more oarsmen. One oarsman is the leader, the others are slaves or prisoners. Oar positions were named (pianero, postizzo, terzichio, etc.) click to see.
Vogovans (coguer and avant)	Chief rowers in a galley.

Bamford, Paul; "Fighting Ships and Prisons: The Mediterranean Galleys of France in the Age of Louis XIV"

Davis, Robert; "Christian Slaves, Muslim Msters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast, and Italy, 1500-1800"

Gardiner, Robert: Editor; "Cogs, Caravels and Galleons: The Sailing Ship 1000-1650"

Gardiner, Robert: Editor; "The age of the Galley"

King, Charles; "The Black Sea: A History"

Knight, Frncis; "A relation of seaven yeares salverie vnder the Turkes of Argeire"

Lopez, Robert S.; "The Commercial Revolution of the Middle Ages, 950-1350"

Marteilhe, Jean; (McInerney, Vincent: Editor); "Galley Slave"

Scetti, Aurelio; (Monga, Luigi: Editor); "The Journal of Aurelio Scetti: A Florentine Galley Slave at Lepanto (1565-1577)"

Tengüz, Hüsnü; "Osmanli Bahriyesi'nin Mazisi: The History of the Ottoman Navy"

¹ "The Moriscos of Spain: Their Conversion and Expulsion", by Henry Lea, p. 298

² "Galley Slave", by Jean Marteilhe, Edited by Vincent McInerney, pp. 8, 10
"Fighting Ships and Prisons: The Mediterranean Galleys of France in the Age of Louis XIV", by Bamford, Paul, pp. 29, 311

³ "The Black Sea: A History", by Charles King, pp. 157-161

⁴ "Galley Slave", by Jean Marteilhe, Edited by Vincent McInerney, pp. 34-35

⁵ ibid., p. 36

⁶ ibid., p. 38

⁷ ibid., pp. 16, 75

⁸ ibid., pp. 70, 72, 73, 138, 139, 145

⁹ "Fighting Ships and Prisons: The Mediterranean Galleys of France in the Age of Louis XIV", by Bamford, Paul, pp. 56-58

¹⁰ ibid., pp. 25, 26

¹¹ ibid., p. 32

Esther M. Zimmer Lederberg
Galera

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Esther M. Zimmer Lederberg Galera

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Esther M. Zimmer Lederberg
Galera